Learning Apple Compressor [Video]

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
navigate through Compressor to design custom workflows for everyday encoding. This course is – Selection from Learning Apple Compressor [Video]. In this computer based training course on Apple Compressor 4, expert author Matt Read it now on the O’Reilly learning platform with a day free trial.
 
 

 

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An accelerometer is a tool that measures proper acceleration. By contrast, accelerometers in free fall falling toward the center of the Earth at a rate of about 9. Accelerometers have many uses in industry and science. Highly sensitive accelerometers are used in inertial navigation systems for aircraft and missiles.

Vibration in rotating machines is monitored by accelerometers. They are used in tablet computers and digital cameras so that images on screens are always displayed upright. In unmanned aerial vehicles , accelerometers help to stabilise flight.

When two or more accelerometers are coordinated with one another, they can measure differences in proper acceleration, particularly gravity, over their separation in space—that is, the gradient of the gravitational field. Gravity gradiometry is useful because absolute gravity is a weak effect and depends on the local density of the Earth, which is quite variable.

Single- and multi-axis accelerometers can detect both the magnitude and the direction of the proper acceleration, as a vector quantity, and can be used to sense orientation because the direction of weight changes , coordinate acceleration, vibration, shock , and falling in a resistive medium a case in which the proper acceleration changes, increasing from zero.

Micromachined microelectromechanical systems MEMS accelerometers are increasingly present in portable electronic devices and video-game controllers, to detect changes in the positions of these devices. An accelerometer measures proper acceleration , which is the acceleration it experiences relative to freefall and is the acceleration felt by people and objects. An accelerometer at rest relative to the Earth’s surface will indicate approximately 1 g upwards because the Earth’s surface exerts a normal force upwards relative to the local inertial frame the frame of a freely falling object near the surface.

To obtain the acceleration due to motion with respect to the Earth, this «gravity offset» must be subtracted and corrections made for effects caused by the Earth’s rotation relative to the inertial frame. The reason for the appearance of a gravitational offset is Einstein’s equivalence principle , [5] which states that the effects of gravity on an object are indistinguishable from acceleration. When held fixed in a gravitational field by, for example, applying a ground reaction force or an equivalent upward thrust, the reference frame for an accelerometer its own casing accelerates upwards with respect to a free-falling reference frame.

The effects of this acceleration are indistinguishable from any other acceleration experienced by the instrument so that an accelerometer cannot detect the difference between sitting in a rocket on the launch pad, and being in the same rocket in deep space while it uses its engines to accelerate at 1 g.

For similar reasons, an accelerometer will read zero during any type of free fall. This includes use in a coasting spaceship in deep space far from any mass, a spaceship orbiting the Earth, an airplane in a parabolic «zero-g» arc, or any free-fall in a vacuum.

Another example is free-fall at a sufficiently high altitude that atmospheric effects can be neglected. However, this does not include a non-free fall in which air resistance produces drag forces that reduce the acceleration until constant terminal velocity is reached.

At terminal velocity, the accelerometer will indicate 1 g acceleration upwards. For the same reason a skydiver , upon reaching terminal velocity, does not feel as though he or she were in «free-fall», but rather experiences a feeling similar to being supported at 1 g on a «bed» of uprushing air.

For the practical purpose of finding the acceleration of objects with respect to the Earth, such as for use in an inertial navigation system , a knowledge of local gravity is required. This can be obtained either by calibrating the device at rest, [6] or from a known model of gravity at the approximate current position.

Conceptually, an accelerometer is a damped mass, a proof mass , on a spring. When the accelerometer experiences an acceleration, the mass is moved to the point that the spring can push accelerate the mass at the same speed as the casing.

The measurement of the spring’s compression measures the acceleration. The system is damped so that oscillations wiggles of the mass and spring do not affect the needed measurements. Because of the damping, accelerometers always respond in different ways to different frequencies of acceleration. This is called the «frequency response.

Many animals have sensory organs to detect acceleration, especially gravity. In these, the proof mass is usually one or more crystals of calcium carbonate otoliths Latin for «ear stone» or statoconia , acting against a bed of hairs connected to neurons. The hairs form the springs, with the neurons as sensors.

The damping is usually by a fluid. Many vertebrates, including humans, have these structures in their inner ears. Most invertebrates have similar organs, but not as part of their hearing organs. These are called statocysts. Mechanical accelerometers are often designed so that an electronic circuit senses a small amount of motion, then pushes on the proof mass with some type of linear motor to keep the proof mass from moving far.

The motor might be an electromagnet or in very small accelerometers, electrostatic. Since the circuit’s electronic behavior can be carefully designed, and the proof mass does not move far, these designs can be very stable i.

This is called servo mode design. In mechanical accelerometers, measurement is often electrical, piezoelectric , piezoresistive or capacitive. Piezoelectric accelerometers use piezoceramic sensors e. They are unmatched in high frequency measurements, low packaged weight, and resistance to high temperatures. Piezoresistive accelerometers resist shock very high accelerations better.

Capacitive accelerometers typically use a silicon micro-machined sensing element. They measure low frequencies well. Modern mechanical accelerometers are often small micro-electro-mechanical systems MEMS , and are often very simple MEMS devices, consisting of little more than a cantilever beam with a proof mass also known as seismic mass.

Damping results from the residual gas sealed in the device. As long as the Q-factor is not too low, damping does not result in a lower sensitivity. Under the influence of external accelerations, the proof mass deflects from its neutral position.

This deflection is measured in an analog or digital manner. Most commonly, the capacitance between a set of fixed beams and a set of beams attached to the proof mass is measured. This method is simple, reliable, and inexpensive. Integrating piezoresistors in the springs to detect spring deformation, and thus deflection, is a good alternative, although a few more process steps are needed during the fabrication sequence. For very high sensitivities quantum tunnelling is also used; this requires a dedicated process making it very expensive.

Optical measurement has been demonstrated in laboratory devices. Another MEMS-based accelerometer is a thermal or convective accelerometer. This heats the air or other fluid inside the dome. The thermal bubble acts as the proof mass. An accompanying temperature sensor like a thermistor ; or thermopile in the dome measures the temperature in one location of the dome.

This measures the location of the heated bubble within the dome. When the dome is accelerated, the colder, higher density fluid pushes the heated bubble. The measured temperature changes. The temperature measurement is interpreted as acceleration. The fluid provides the damping. Gravity acting on the fluid provides the spring. Since the proof mass is very lightweight gas, and not held by a beam or lever, thermal accelerometers can survive high shocks. Another variation uses a wire to both heat the gas and detect the change in temperature.

The change of temperature changes the resistance of the wire. A two dimensional accelerometer can be economically constructed with one dome, one bubble and two measurement devices. Most micromechanical accelerometers operate in-plane , that is, they are designed to be sensitive only to a direction in the plane of the die.

By integrating two devices perpendicularly on a single die a two-axis accelerometer can be made. By adding another out-of-plane device, three axes can be measured. Such a combination may have much lower misalignment error than three discrete models combined after packaging. Micromechanical accelerometers are available in a wide variety of measuring ranges, reaching up to thousands of g ‘ s.

The designer must compromise between sensitivity and the maximum acceleration that can be measured. Accelerometers can be used to measure vehicle acceleration. Accelerometers can be used to measure vibration on cars, machines, buildings, process control systems and safety installations. They can also be used to measure seismic activity , inclination, machine vibration, dynamic distance and speed with or without the influence of gravity.

Applications for accelerometers that measure gravity, wherein an accelerometer is specifically configured for use in gravimetry , are called gravimeters. Accelerometers are also increasingly used in the biological sciences. High frequency recordings of bi-axial [9] or tri-axial acceleration [10] allows the discrimination of behavioral patterns while animals are out of sight. Furthermore, recordings of acceleration allow researchers to quantify the rate at which an animal is expending energy in the wild, by either determination of limb-stroke frequency [11] or measures such as overall dynamic body acceleration [12] Such approaches have mostly been adopted by marine scientists due to an inability to study animals in the wild using visual observations, however an increasing number of terrestrial biologists are adopting similar approaches.

For example, accelerometers have been used to study flight energy expenditure of Harris’s Hawk Parabuteo unicinctus. Accelerometers are also used for machinery health monitoring to report the vibration and its changes in time of shafts at the bearings of rotating equipment such as turbines, pumps , [16] fans, [17] rollers, [18] compressors , [19] [20] or bearing fault [21] which, if not attended to promptly, can lead to costly repairs.

Accelerometer vibration data allows the user to monitor machines and detect these faults before the rotating equipment fails completely. Accelerometers are used to measure the motion and vibration of a structure that is exposed to dynamic loads. Dynamic loads originate from a variety of sources including:.

Under structural applications, measuring and recording how a structure dynamically responds to these inputs is critical for assessing the safety and viability of a structure. This type of monitoring is called Health Monitoring, which usually involves other types of instruments, such as displacement sensors -Potentiometers, LVDTs, etc.

Within the last several years, several companies have produced and marketed sports watches for runners that include footpods , containing accelerometers to help determine the speed and distance for the runner wearing the unit.

In Belgium, accelerometer-based step counters are promoted by the government to encourage people to walk a few thousand steps each day. Herman Digital Trainer uses accelerometers to measure strike force in physical training. It has been suggested to build football helmets with accelerometers in order to measure the impact of head collisions.

Accelerometers have been used to calculate gait parameters , such as stance and swing phase. This kind of sensor can be used to measure or monitor people. An inertial navigation system is a navigation aid that uses a computer and motion sensors accelerometers to continuously calculate via dead reckoning the position, orientation, and velocity direction and speed of movement of a moving object without the need for external references.